Beverage Repair and Maintenance (again)

Beverages are fantastic low band receive antennas. They're simple and inexpensive, yet they perform exceptionally well. With a little bit of simple electronics and winding small transformers they can be made reversible, giving you two directions. My first unidirectional Beverage toward Europe was installed soon after I moved to this QTH. Along with my first ever full size 160 meter antenna I had a wonderful time on top band.

The one thing Beverage antennas need that most hams don't have is lots of space. A Beverage for top band is typically from 100 to 200 meters long. I am fortunate to have the space. They are located in an area of derelict bush that hasn't been farmed for decades. The 3 reversible Beverages cover the 6 most useful compass directions. There are plans for a fourth, but the need isn't urgent so I have deferred the work in favour of other projects.

Beverages have their negative points:

• They are typically no higher than 3 meters. They are susceptible to damage from people, animals and vegetation. Search the blog and you'll find several articles about the construction and maintenance challenges I've dealt with since putting up my first unidirectional Beverage in early 2017. Maintenance and repair twice a year has become routine.
• Despite being so low, Beverages are highly susceptible to lightning. Their length easily induces high voltage currents from nearby strikes, and they provide a conveniently large number of junction points for strikes to reach charge reservoirs in the ground. Many hams disconnect their Beverages during the summer when lightning is common and activity on the low bands declines due to the high atmospheric noise.

It was September before I could access most of the Beverage system. The hay, insects and summer growth strongly discourage anyone venturing into the fields and bush from late spring to late summer. Over the past few weeks I've discovered that the lightning strike earlier this year did more damage than I realized. It will be some time yet before the system is back in full service.

The first job was to retrieve and repair the Beverage remote switch. It was easy to reach once the hay has been mowed. All the relays had to be replaced, and for the same reason as the previous time lightning struck. All I had in my stock was SPDT reed relays so I used those. Since I only had 3 and there are at present only 3 Beverages, I left the fourth port disconnected. An important advantage of SPDT relays is that I can ground the feed line to the Beverages when they're not in use. That provides limited protection against lightning. I'll take it.

Unlike the SPST reed relays these replaced there are no internal flyback diodes. To make the job easier I didn't put any in the switch. I will add them to the switching system in the shack. Their location is not critical, so putting them close to the electronics they are meant to protect is perfectly acceptable.

Lightning was not content to only wreck the relays this time. The pair of 0.1 μF coupling capacitors were blasted by the surge. These capacitors are only rated for 50 volts. Had they been rated for a kilovolt they still might not have survived. I'll order more robust capacitors for future repairs.

With the remote switch tested and reinstalled I proceeded to test the rest of the system. The east-west Beverage was completely dead and the northeast-southwest Beverage was bidirectional and unresponsive to reversing current. The north-south Beverage was unaffected because the electronics were taken indoors before the strike due to a switching problem. However I have yet to fix it, with the result that none of the Beverages were in service.

I brought the head ends indoors for examination. I also performed simple tests of the Beverage wires and reflection transformers and all passed. That was the only good news. I waded through the bush and confirmed there was no physical lightning damage, but there were other problems which I'll come to shortly.

Above is the head end of the east-west Beverage. The blocking capacitors and the RF choke of the bias-T for the reversing current were blasted apart. At least one transformer winding arced and melted through. Scorch marks on the plastic enclosure from arcing are obvious. Several copper traces on the underside of the PCB vanished.

Despite having done no further component tests I think it is fair to say that the head end may be a total loss. It will have to be rebuilt from scratch. The northeast-southwest head end has less damage and may be salvagable by replacing a few of the parts. I plan to order new relays and rewind the transformers for both head ends. One of the transformers of the north-south Beverages will probably also need to be replaced.

I reconfigured my Beverage test fixture as a differential mode head end and installed it on the east-west Beverage. There is a 5:2 transformer inside and a pair of 0.1 μF coupling capacitors. The impedance match is not exact but good enough. The capacitors prevent a short if reversing current is accidentally applied by the operator (me!). West is a useful direction for the Pacific opening this time of year. It's a temporary measure.

Parts need to be ordered and the head ends rebuilt. I'll do that in the coming weeks. In the meantime there was routine physical maintenance to be done to repair and prevent animal and vegetation damage. The only animal damage this year was to the northeast termination of the northeast-southwest Beverage. It was most likely caused by a deer walking into the wire running between the reflection transformer and ground rod. 

The wire was torn off the ground rod clamp and the transformer enclosure pulled off its mounting. The damage was easy to repair. To prevent a repetition, I stacked a pile of stones under the wire. There was an ample supply within a few meters since, as was typical when the land was originally broken for farming, the stones that litter the soil in this area were rolled over to the fence lines. 

What I should do is lengthen the ground wire so that it can lie on the ground out of the way of trespassing wildlife. The extra length of wire will have a negligible impact on antenna performance. Perhaps I'll do that once I have other jobs out of the way. The stones can remain to protect the ground rod.

The rest of the maintenance involved trimming vegetation. It is often quite a surprise to see how much the trees and bushes grow over the summer. Branches that were previously trimmed have grown back and in many cases tangled in the Beverage wires. New bushes sprout up where there was none before. If left uncut they will threaten the Beverages next year. It's unpleasant and tedious work, but it has to be done.

Especially problematic bushes and trees are cut down rather than just trimmed. For example, the thorny bush above was chopped down on this outing. In some respects it's a shame to have to do it, but this is wild secondary growth on an abandoned farm field that has no particular value. I am tempted to bring in a large tractor and flatten the vegetation.

Last year I had a problem with the wires of the northeast-southwest Beverage. They would oscillate in the breeze and eventually spin and short together. When I installed the original single wire Beverage I used every available tree and bush along the route as support. There were no artificial supports. 

This haphazard approach simplified construction but created a problem when I twinned the wire to make the Beverage reversible. The Beverage is not quite straight. It wanders a little one way then the other to utilize the available supports. Beverage performance isn't affected by minor deviations.

As vegetation grows the deflection and spinning tend to increase. In two instances I had to decouple the wires from the supports without installing a pole to replace them.

My interim solution was string attached to the Beverage at those two points and tying them to small bushes. It didn't work as well as I'd  hoped. During this maintenance outing we installed a PVC pipe at the most problematic location. Spinning is far less likely since both wires are firmly attached to the pipe. Over time I will have to do more of this and perhaps abandon all of the natural supports.

To ease the job this fall, I was assisted by my friend and favourite ground crew member, Alan VE3KAE, along with his trusty axe. Why suffer alone when you can share the misery.

The vegetation growth was serious enough that it took us longer than expected. There was no time afterwards to work on other projects. I have yet to lay out the radials for my big 160 meter vertical. We got a good workout and had enjoyable conversations as we inched along through the bush. I can unroll the radials on my own another day.

In light of all this complaining and frustration there is the inevitable question: are the Beverages worth all the work? It is a question worth contemplating since there are alternative low band receiving antennas.

Beverage are simple and effective but vulnerable to nature. I may no longer be able to keep them connected during summer. That hasn't been a major problem because I have to disable my big vertical during the summer. That may change in the future. 

It has always been my intent to have a second low noise receive antenna system for multi-op contesting. That would be a short vertical array. They are reasonably compact, less susceptible to nature's assaults and in most cases have superior performance (RDF) in comparison to Beverages. I have enough room for Beverages and a vertical array.

Since these systems are very finicky to design, build and adjust most hams use commercial products. They can be quite expensive. Further, the amplifiers they require must be sufficiently robust to withstand a simultaneously transmitting kilowatt during contests; at other times it is not an issue. I know hams that have had to deal with pre-amp overload when using their vertical receive arrays during contests.

Another alternative is to go back to unidirectional Beverages and simply put up more of them. They're simpler and the vulnerable reversing electronics are absent. They're easier to build and repair. But do I want double the number of Beverages to maintain out in the bush? Or perhaps have several that are installed in the open fields during the fall and removed in the spring? A lot of coax must also be deployed since it is not convenient to have the feed points close together given the constraints of my property.

By laying out the pros and cons you can perhaps better appreciate the alternatives. Every low band operator must choose. It comes down to trade offs of money, ability, performance, land use and effort. Two hams can come to opposite decisions and both be right. 

I am not yet near a decision and I won't make one this winter. There's a lot to mull over.

Transformer Hum

Power transformers are everywhere: in our equipment and in our homes. They transform the utility service voltage (120 or 240 VAC in Canada) to a higher or lower voltage needed by an electrical device. Those that transfer high power are large: dimensions, weight and cost. Copper isn't cheap. Although they can be remarkably efficient there is power loss.

Heat is the most noticable attribute of power loss. Another is sound. The intense magnetic field can vibrate loose components in the transformer that are subject to the field. Those are the core and the windings. All transformers vibrate but an improperly constructed transformer or one that is old and suffering from degradation of chemical binders and insulating layers can be objectionably loud. 

The greater the power the transformer is handling the stronger the vibration. If the equipment is in the shack you'll notice it! For example, the power transformer in a kilowatt amplifier when it is transmitting.

The sound has a fundamental of 120 Hz (counting both positive and negative swings at 60 Hz) and there can be substantial harmonic content. The latter is more noticable since our ears' sensitivity rolls off at low frequencies. The transformer's enclosure and how it is mounted can amplify the sound, and those harmonics, in the same fashion as a speaker and its enclosure. In severe cases it can be quite loud and annoying. 

Headphones are not very good at blocking low frequency sounds, and other noise such as rig and amplifier fans don't cover it up very well. It is better to solve the problem at the source. Unfortunately that isn't always possible, depending on the condition of the transformer and its placement inside the equipment. 

Let's look at a few cases I've dealt with, or tried to deal with, that may give you a few ideas should you have to deal with loud transformer hum. Don't confuse this with the other kind of audio hum that can be cured with a transformer.

The sheet metal enclosure for the Drake L7 amplifier's separate power supply is prone to vibration since it is large and thin with little structural bracing. It is close to the transformer on 3 sides of the large plate transformer core. When I first set it up it was loud. The sound was amplified when I placed it on a shelf under the operating desk since the desk and wall acted as an acoustic enclosure.

The enclosure is not easy to remove so I waited until I had to open it to replace the rectifier and filter boards. The first thing I tried was to tighten the bolts that press together the laminations comprising the core. They may loosen over the years from the 60 Hz vibrations. That helped a little but not nearly enough.

The next step was to add dampening to the enclosure. Fibreglass insulation was attached to the top and sides of transformer core. The layer was just thick enough to fill the gap between the core and enclosure. This material works well since it fire and heat resistance and provides excellent soundproofing. It is important to allow adequate airflow when you do this since the transformer heat has to escape or the transformer will prematurely fail -- fibreglass insulation slows heat transfer (obviously). Use it sparingly.

The sheet metal vibration is greatly dampened by the insulation it is in contact with. The noise was sufficiently suppressed that I considered the problem solved. The hum is still audible though quiet enough that it almost completely disappears when wearing headphones.

This spring I purchased a small Astron linear power supply to replace, perhaps permanently, another that was damaged in my most recent lightning strike. Transformer hum was objectionably loud. Simple measures such as its placement on and under the operating desk were ineffective. A friend loaned me a power supply so I forgot about for a few months. About a week ago I decided to try again.

I'll tell you up front that I was not successful. Failures are interesting so I thought it would be worthwhile to show what I did, what effect it had and my final assessment of the power supply. Apart from the transformer hum the power supply works perfectly well.

The transformer is attached to the chassis with rivets. Unlike bolts and nuts, which have adjustable torque, rivets are not adjustable once installed. Transformer vibrations can be amplified and chatter if they are even slightly loose. They appeared to be tight but I removed them anyway. A drill is used to split the outer plate from the shank with a bit about the same diameter as the rivet shank.

I experimented with a more absorptive mount with the objective of attenuating the coupling of transformer vibration to the chassis. Plate steel chassis are notorious for vibrating and amplifying sound from within it. 

Screws and nuts replace the rivets, with fibre washers under the bolt head and nut. There is a thin layer of fibreglass insulation between the chassis and transformer flanges. With the enclosure still open, the level of audible hum was reduced. More insulation was loosely wrapped around the transformer to see if that would help. It didn't.

Before doing that, I tightened the 4 long screws at the corners of the transformer core. Only a little additional torque could be applied before the soft metal of the screw heads began to distort. Vibration was unaffected.

A small C-vise was applied to the vertical plates on the sides of the core to see if additional pressure would have an effect. It didn't. This was safer than torquing the screws beyond their limit. 

Had it worked I would have considered replacing the screws. This is not a good idea most of the time since the lamination and their coatings can be damaged. 

Should you try it, avoid steel screws unless the allow is designed for this application. Otherwise they may be heated by the magnetic flux. Brass or a similar non-magnetic metal can be used. The metal determines the maximum torque that can be applied. Be careful.

At this point I was running out of ideas. The core does not appear to be the source of the vibration. I concluded that the windings are at fault. This can be due to age or poor manufacture. I hesitate to blame Astron since this hasn't been common with their power supply products in my experience. However, I've sampled only a small quantity of their products.

My final attempt was to fully stuff the enclosure with insulation. This is not a particularly wise move but I had nothing to lose. Heat isn't able to freely escape and bits of insulation can cause a mess. I don't recommend it as a permanent solution. In any case it didn't work.

Well, that's not quite true. It did work well with the top cover off. When the cover was slipped on, screwed on or not, the noise returned. It was barely attenuated at all by all that insulation. In the photo you can see what it looks like. (Note: the cover was accidentally reversed when I took the picture but that's not how I tested it!)

The enclosure is amplifying the noise and there is no easy cure. It's partly due to its design. Notice that there are only two screw holes on top where the cover attaches to tabs on the rear panel by the heat sink. The front panel is free to vibrate, as is the top of the cover. Perhaps fabricated tabs and screwing it together would help. I don't plan on doing that since it isn't worth the effort for such an inexpensive product. I've exhausted my patience.

I am left with several options.

• Use it with the cover off. While not the safest thing to do it will not be in reach of inquisitive fingers. A soft plastic cover can avoid the bulk of the electrocution risk.
• Place it where the noise doesn't disturb the operator. I can do that, except turning it on and off becomes a chore.
• Replace the transformer. That's an overkill repair and not worth the expense. Rewinding the transformer is a job for a ham braver than me, or one with far too much time on their hands.
  
• Repair the lightning damaged power supply and relegate this one to the workshop. I have tried repairing the malfunctioning Pyramid power supply but it involves replacing almost every semiconductor on the PCB. There could be one or many faulty devices. It, too, isn't worth the effort.
• Buy or build a new power supply.
  

I will use it for a while with the cover off and replace it at some point. I have two power supplies damaged by lightning and perhaps I'll get lucky getting one of them working again. The application is my station automation system which does not require a highly regulated 13.8 VDC. Relays aren't fussy. I have 5 VDC regulators to tame the power supply for the Arduino and relays.

Working on this problem was more about personal interest rather than necessity. I enjoy playing with broken things to see if I can get them working. I spent little time on it because my interest level isn't high. I've exhausted the learning experience dealing with vibrating power transformers. 

Is this report useful to readers? Perhaps it is, and that's why I took a few minutes to write it up.

Control Systems: Relays vs. Transistors

I haven't said much about revamping my automated control system since mentioning it a few months ago. A lot has happened since then. That said, progress has not been rapid because it was summer, and summer is a time for other activities. Despite the many delays the software is not far from completion. 

Well, that's the software. Where I have been more reserved is with my decisions for the hardware. Software cannot on its own do anything: it must be connected to the real world. On an Arduino and similar systems the GPIO (general purpose input output) pins are the interface between the two. 

I have waffled between solid state and relay switches to put signals on the control lines, weighing their various pros and cons. Now that I've made firm decisions and begun implementation I thought that this would be a good time to discuss my investigation and experiments, and the reasons for my choices. This could prove of interest to others, hence this blog post. 

Despite being oriented towards contesting, the presented information should be of broader interest. Our increasingly software-centric shacks enable opportunities for station automation and remote operation that we could only dream about in the past. 

I do not claim expertise. What I can do is explain the how and why of my design choices. There are many online resources that delve into greater detail, and there are commercial control solutions for the ham shack. My citing of these will be sparse since that is not the topic of this article.

Using GPIO on Arduino

pinMode(gpio#, OUTPUT);

It may seem obvious but don't forget to include the above code in your Arduino sketch. I've forgotten a few times and the result was confusing behaviour. You can perform a digitalWrite on GPIO pins that have not been so declare (the default is INPUT) except that the GPIO may only supply a few milliamps before a logic HIGH sags to become a logic LOW. I now make sure to declare all the GPIO pins as OUTPUT during initialization (reset).

GPIO output pins default to LOW. That seems sensible since we tend to think of LOW as off and HIGH as on. That is often not the case. There are good reasons to use reverse logic (LOW is on) to simplify connection to external modules.

I posted a picture of a midsize Arduino. Mine is a Mega. I need the Mega's large number of GPIO pins due to the sheer size of my antenna farm and shack equipment. Most hams can get by with less.

What I need to switch

The mosaic of switches that can be found in my station are collected below. It is partial since there is far more.

Going clockwise from the upper left, and then the centre:

• Beverage remote switch
• Head end of a reversing Beverage
• Stack switch
• 2×8 antenna switch (Hamplus)
  
• 80 meter 3-element vertical yagi
• Parasitic element (there are 4) of the aforementioned yagi
• Relay board of the 6-band low-power BPF (VA6AM)
  

As you can see there are many relays in the RF path. To reach those remote switches there are multiple DC control lines that wend their way out to and up the towers, below ground and on the ground. There is a lot for the station automation system to connect and manage. Further, the threat of lightning is ever present and therefore the risk to control system electronics in addition to its more spectacular effects.

I am not able to switch the amplifiers at present because they are manually tuned tube amps. My plan for the future is for modern amps that can be automatically switched. An alternative is RF-detection that is available in an increasing number of amplifiers. A few milliseconds of transmitted RF will switch the band and ATU setting automatically. 

Switching devices

GPIO pins can't deliver enough current to directly switch the switch the relays shown above, and if you try there is risk of damage to the Arduino. Many control lines power multiple relays so the current requirement is even higher. It is also unwise due to the risk of damage to the processor from pulses and surges from relay coils, precipitation static and induction from nearby lightning strikes. On the bright side, all of these components, including Arduino boards, are inexpensive.

At right are several choices for switching devices. Clockwise from left, and then the centre, are:

• 2N2222A NPN transistors
• The same devices mounted on a proto-board with base resistors and current-limiting load resistors (e.g. for LED or a second switch stage); an SPST reed relay is shown, though not connected
  
• ULN2003 NPN Darlington transistor arrays
  
• Module with high current relays and drivers suitable for direct GPIO connection
• 2N6034G PNP Darlington transistors
  

The solid state devices are cheap and easy to buy in bulk from online suppliers. They are small and quiet, which is nice for use within the shack.

Darlington transistors are important for switch voltages higher than that of the microprocessor logic. With a single transistor (Darlington transistors have two in series), there is a substantial risk of the higher switched voltage destroying the microprocessor.

During prototyping I tried all of the possibilities. In the above photo the NPN drivers are lighting LEDs that represent one side of the 2×8 antenna switch; the port for the 20 meter stack is selected. PNP Darlington transistors on the lower right and their NPN drivers light LEDs for the 10 meter stack switch. The upper yagi is shown as selected. The relay module is connected but with normal logic (see next section) none of its relays will switch on. 

The power supply PCB (upper right) with two 5 volt regulators is not being used. USB 5 volt power is the sole power source. The relay module has 5 volt coils, however the only reed relays on hand have 12 volt coils that could not be tested without a 12 volt supply connected.

Reed relays are quiet and small, and well suited to the modest demands of control line switching. The relay modules are larger and louder but they're cheap and easy to connect to the Arduino. If size and noise are a problem it is possible to locate them outside the shack with a wireless Arduino shield. That is my ultimate intent.

A benefit of using SPDT relays is that when the control line is idle it can be grounded by connecting the NC terminal to ground. That is only possible with high-side switching; with low-side switching, grounding the NC terminal energizes the circuit, which is not what we want. This brings us to the next section.

High-side and low-side switching, and switching logic

The switch (mechanical or electronic) can be placed on the low side or high side of the circuit. The diagram at right shows both. The supply voltage is applied at the high side of the load (e.g. relay coil) and a low side switch grounds the load to complete the circuit. The opposite applies for a high side switch.

You don't always get to choose. All of my home brew antenna switches are high side. The Hamplus 2×8 antenna switch requires low side switching. The same is true of almost all amplifiers, where you ground the control line to bring the amp inline when transmitting. I prefer high side switches for outdoor equipment so that the power supply is not continuously in circuit, leaving the power supply exposed to all potential occurrences of static and surge. In practice it's no big deal and I may be overreacting.

Whichever you want or require there are implications for how the GPIO are used. With a solid state switch you can use either NPN or PNP transistors. The choice is not arbitrary since they are not equivalent.

• NPN: normal logic (HIGH is on) and low power dissipation.
• PNP: reverse logic (LOW is on) and high power dissipation.
  

Vce is very low with an NPN switch so that the I²R loss is also very low. Vce is typically 0.6 to 0.8 volts with a PNP switch and the loss is higher. That is why it is common to see NPN Darlington array chips and individual PNP Darlington transistors with a heat sink option (see the picture above). With the small relays we typically use the power dissipation is modest and a heat sink is not required.

With normal logic and high voltage (12 volts is high when dealing with a microprocessor!) a high side switch requires a complementary Darlington transistor: NPN followed by a PNP. Since there are pretty well none of these devices commercially available it must be constructed from individual transistors, and the parts count is high. That adds up when you have dozens of control lines to switch. With a PNP Darlington you escape that if you use reverse logic (LOW is on).

For the typical multi-relay modules marketed to Arduino users you can directly connect them to the GPIO pins if, again,  you use reverse logic. With normal logic an NPN driver is required to invert the logic.

My choices

After looking at the effort and cost required for the various options I have settled on my final choices for switching devices.

• Indoor equipment: Darlington transistors
  
• Outdoor equipment: Relay modules

Relay modules are surprisingly inexpensive from multiple online sources. This stack of 48 relays cost me only a little more than $1 (CDN) per relay. That many relays might seem excessive at first glance until you consider that just the 2×8 switch requires 16 relays. The small PCB at the lower left is for one of the 6-band BPF. It is partially populated with PNP Darlington transistors.

By restricting myself to these two options I will use reverse logic in the Arduino. I recommend that you use similar code as that below when doing this. You can easily switch between normal and reverse logic by changing just two global variables. Mixing logic in an Arduino sketch can cause confusion during coding so I recommend sticking to one or the other.

int R_OFF = HIGH;
int R_ON = LOW;

digitalWrite(gpio#, R_OFF);
digitalWrite(gpio#, R_ON);

There are no NPN drivers required at all! The PNP Darlington transistors are driven directly by the GPIO pins with only a base resistor: 3.3 kΩ appears to work well for the 2N6034G. I have designed control boards for the BPF to support both manual and automatic band selection. Other than the transistors all it contains are bypass capacitors, base resistors and several Dupont connectors.

The relay modules connect directly to the GPIO pins. Except for the 2×8 switch (low side switched) the NC relay terminals will be grounded for lightning mitigation. The system will be large with all the relay modules stacked. It will be placed out of sight under the operating desk.

When I transition to Wi-Fi to untether the control system from the PC, it will be placed where the relay chatter can't be heard at the operating desk. Lightning protection for the station can be better when the control lines are kept out of the shack and closer to an external ground. A small 13.8 VDC power suppy can be colocated with the remote control system.

Next

Cabling is no small job. There are over 100 Dupont connectors to be assembled, most in groups, for connection to the Arduino, relay modules and BPF PCBs. A crimp tool is essential for the work to proceed smoothly and to produce reliable connections. 

There are multiple DB9 and DB25 connectors and cables to/from peripheral equipment and the control cable patch panel in the basement. It's a tedious but necessary job.

For the initial installation I might not use an enclosure for the control system. The quantity of connectors and an almost guaranteed need for future changes makes for difficult and perhaps unnecessary work. Provided there is sufficient RFI protection it can be left "open" until the design of the control system matures.

With a little luck and some hard work the full system should be ready for CQ WW SSB at the end of October. Well, that's the ideal, but with all the tower and antenna work I am doing for myself and others I might not be done in time. I'll have more to say about the full system once it is complete and it has been used in at least one contest.

Is Patience a Virtue?

Patience is the ability to endure difficult circumstances.

You've probably heard stories like the following. A ham operating with a small station in a small yard in a suburban neighbourhood has, after 50 years of effort, reached 300 DXCC countries on 160 meters. It doesn't have to be exactly this milestone but something similarly difficult like 9BDXCC, top of the DXCC honour roll, or a major award with QRP and a low dipole.

The common factor is the time required to get there. An achievement of this magnitude with one or more operating handicaps requires long years of patient effort. Each QSO is difficult, the propagation is seldom favourable, work and family obligations limit operating time and there may be only the occasional DXpedition for many of the target areas.

Are you impressed? Are these laudable pursuits? Consider that a ham with a big station can often do the same in 5 years or less. Is there virtue in spending a large fraction of your life with a minimal station to accomplish what another ham could do in a a fraction of the time and with less effort? 

There are some in the latter category who are dismissive of the long haulers and will gladly spout derogatory slogans such as "life is too short for QRP" or "work 'em fast and move on the next one". Big is the way to go for them. Is there an objective way to decide which category of ham is more correct or virtuous? Is the question ever asked in good faith, or is it only voiced with smug certainty? 

I know those in the former category, and they do not get upset when these views are expressed to their faces. Instead they just smile, smug in their belief that they understand something that others do not. Both would be wise to note what I said in an earlier article:

Never mistake a personal preference for a universal truth.

A pleasant homily, it would seem. Perhaps all I'm doing is drawing attention to my own biases! That said, let's pursue the matter further.

I enjoy operating QRP with small antennas. It can be tremendous fun to see what how much can be done with very little. I also enjoy heating the atmosphere with a kilowatt driving huge antennas and working the hordes during contests. What I don't enjoy is exclusively doing one or the other. I like variety.

So, no, I am not really impressed by stories like the ones I mentioned at the start of this article. Sitting there year after year, scouring the bands and waiting for the rare circumstances when I can put another check mark on my awards progress. That would make me feel like the fictional Casey immortalized in a famous poem standing at the plate and waiting for the perfect pitch. 

Expect to strike out more often than not. Self confidence can easily become or seen by others as smugness.

Of course no major award should be easy -- there's no challenge in that! But neither should the pursuit of operating objectives become drudgery or (if that term is offensive) a pursuit of some kind of Zen enlightenment. Which of the following strategies do you feel is more virtuous:

1. Wait for the perfect pitch: dependence on external circumstances, such as propagation, to be favourable.
2. Hasten success: reliance on one's own ingenuity and effort, such as by building a better station, and thereby decrease dependence on outside forces.
   

Challenge, yes, but one I can meet with a combination of circumstance and my own ingenuity. I feel good when I get through a DX pile-up with the aid of operating skills I've spent years learning and using towers and antennas I've designed and built myself.

I do not feel as happy when I'm simply lucky working the rare DX. I would also feel no accomplishment by paying to rent a super-station via internet remote. Others feel differently and that's okay. We all have our preferences.

Patience may be a virtue but, to lean on another homily, practice it in moderation. There is no shame in the ambition to improve your station to more speedily reach your objectives and, indeed, to reach previously unachievable objectives. That said, I commend those limited to small stations, whether by taste or means, who hone their skills and exploit technology (e.g. digital modes) and other aids to accelerate progress towards their goals. 

Patience may be a virtue but it can become complacency: an excuse to justify the avoidance of learning and building. If you're patient it may be time to push yourself out of your comfort zone and try something different. There is much to be gained. Good things rarely come to those who are merely content to wait.

Ode to a Fried Egg Insulator

Lightning is a perpetual risk. As our towers get higher, the antennas larger and the footprint of the antenna farm expands, the risk increases. When you have a big station you will be hit by lightning. Don't build a large station unless you are prepared to face the risk.

Lightning does not negotiate. Attempts to appease it with exemplary grounding practices, protection devices and emergency disconnects don't keep it away. All you can do is minimize the damage. Injury and property damage can be largely avoided when you follow best practices.

There is more that I can and should do in my station, steps that I've deferred to the priority of putting up towers and antennas. Now that I've been struck by lightning twice, each time to the Beverage system, it has percolated up my priority list. With summer largely in the rear view mirror I have time to plan and execute before next year's storm season.

You are probably familiar with the myth that lightning is attracted to high points. It isn't. There isn't anywhere near enough charge in a tower to equal that in the atmosphere. The real reservoir is in the ground. It is only when the cloud and the ground have sufficient electrical potential to bridge the large air gap that our towers may come into play. 

The height of an amateur radio tower is almost negligible in comparison to the distance between cloud and ground. Its role is secondary. If a conducting structure is within the "zone" of a nascent strike a primary or secondary channel will take advantage its presence to sate its appetite, travelling through it and other attached conductors to better reach the charge reservoir in the ground.

When lightning strikes a tower there are many paths to ground. It can, of course, travel down the tower to the ground. In a direct strike the ground rod is almost an afterthought since lightning will bridge the gap through the air as well for a channel large enough to carry up to 100,000 amps. Many of our protections are really only sufficient for secondary strikes and nearby strikes that induce high currents in the tower and other conductors.

In addition to the tower itself, lightning will recruit the coax and cables on the tower and, for a guyed tower, the guys and their anchors. The anchors are natural ground rods, and pretty low impedance ones at that. But what of the insulators we use to break our guys into non-resonant lengths? That brings me to the crux of this article.

The adjacent photo is a ceramic insulator on a guy cable for my 150' tower. Pre-form guy grips thread through the insulator. There is no DC electrical connection between the sections of 5/16" EHS. The capacitance between the pre-forms is no more than a few picofarads, which is an effective barrier at HF frequencies.

I use a mix of 502 and 504 insulators on my guys. Although they are designed for utility service, they do well in this application. But there is only so much they can do in the event of direct lightning strike. While I haven't checked the specs, I expect that they can withstand at least 20 kV, assuming they are in good condition and not coated in dust and pollutants. They are no match for a direct strike.

The 502 insulator at right used to be on the guy of a tall tower at a friend's station. The tower suffered a direct strike years ago and the guy cables conducted a substantial amount of the current. Some of the insulators shattered and the tower only kept upright when the now slack pre-forms made direct contact.

Notice how the lightning flashed around the insulator to travel between guy segments. The flash heating cracked and charred the surface. Even that wasn't enough so it punched through the insulator to reach the next guy segment.

Let's look a little closer.

Impressive, isn't it? Apart from the extensive lightning damage you can also see an ordinary abrasion mark of the pre-form on the insulator (top centre). That can happen even when the pre-forms are installed correctly since there will always be some guy motion that will scrape material over the years. This is a good reason to exceed the minimum requirements for guy components.

He had to replace all the guys on that tower. It couldn't have been a fun job but it can be done while keeping the tower standing. Knowing his background I am certain he did it properly. That, however, is beyond the scope of this article. I know how it's done but I've never done it, and I hope I never have to!

Lightning is intensely powerful. For most hams and their smaller antenna systems the greater risk is by induction from nearby strikes and secondary channels: lightning is an RF phenomenon. There are usually more enticing paths to ground in the area. That's why you should never stand under a tree during an electrical storm.

Use lightning protection measures but never deceive yourself of lightning's power and reach. Good protection against direct strikes is possible but absolute protection may be out of reach of ham budgets. Do it well, follow the regulations and make sure that you're insured.

3-element Trap Tri-bander on 50 MHz

Not long ago a friend asked me about using his short boom 3-element tri-band yagi on 6 meter. Apparently the idea is more popular than I expected. But it makes sense: it's already there, it's rotatable and it's high on a tower, so maybe it's worth a shot. He wanted to try it to see if he could do better than with his wire dipole.

When loading any antenna on a band for which it was not designed there are two critical metrics that must be addressed:

• Efficiency
• Effectiveness

Unless you're very lucky the SWR will be high. That has a strong impact on the efficiency of the antenna system. Elements far longer than that of a half-wave dipole can have peculiar patterns with multiple lobes and nulls. That can be a problem if the antenna is not rotatable.

I gave him my opinions solely based on my experience and thinking through the issues. Out of curiosity I followed up with a software analysis. It wasn't difficult to do since I have a EZNEC models of a tri-band dipole and small 3-element tri-band yagi in my files, and TLW easily analyzed efficiency and matching of the transmission line and tuner (matching network). The dipole is the driven element of the yagi without the beta match. The element model utilizes traps similar to that for common Hy-Gain antennas like the TH3.

It turns out that what I told my friend was partly right and partly wrong. While an educated guess is often good enough for ham work, a model and measurements will do far better for a modest amount of effort. Even experienced hams can be wrong so be very careful whose opinion you solicit. I don't mind being wrong since it's an opportunity to learn. Hence this article.

Above is my EZNEC model of a tri-band yagi fed on 50 MHz, showing the element currents. It is no surprise that the reflector and director currents are low since the spacing is almost double that on 10 meters (by wavelength) and the elements are not resonant on 6 meters. The low impact of the parasitic elements is apparent when they are removed from the model, since the pattern and impedance are little different (see below).

There are current "bumps" at the beta match and traps where there are impedance discontinuities. The traps have a net capacitive reactance at frequencies higher than their resonant frequencies. The beta match is essentially a dice roll since it is arbitrarily transforming a high SWR to a different but also high SWR

The azimuth pattern is pretty good. It's bidirectional with modest gain due to the narrowing of the lobes. The narrow lobes are due to the long length of the yagi driven element; as already noted, the parasitic elements have little effect so that the pattern of the tri-band dipole is almost the same. I wouldn't read too much into the higher free space gain of the dipole (red) since the difference is small and not easily predictable for the variety of commercial antennas of this type.

When I inspected the behaviour of the traps in EZNEC I was surprised to find that their loss was negligible even for realistic Q values of the constituent coil and capacitor. I expected the loss to be low but significant. I haven't yet looked into the details of what was to me an unexpected result. I have an idea how it comes about, but rather than present a guess let's move along.

Well, that was the good news. Now it's time for the bad news.

The SWR is very high, and that's bad. It is similarly high for the tri-band dipole, except that the R and X values are transformed to a high R and negative X by the beta match. I used a beta match in the model due to its use on Hy-Gain yagis and some other tri-band yagis. With other yagi matching networks the effect will be different but perhaps not so much in its behaviour on 50 MHz.

The SWR can be corrected in the shack using a tuner. The ATU in our transceivers cannot cope with an SWR of 30. In actuality, the mismatch loss on the coax is so high that the SWR in the shack will be far lower than 30. TLW is my tool of choice to model the effect of the transmission line.

Many hams use RG213 class coax in their HF antenna systems so that's what I started with. I further assumed 100' (30 m) of coax length, which is typical for a yagi on a small tower located a short distance from the house. The matched loss of RG213 is quite high at -1.6 db, and it balloons to -8.2 db due to the extreme mismatch. With LMR400 the loss is "only" around -6 db. Even with pricier LDF5 the loss is still -2.7 db. 

Notice that the SWR of 5 in the shack is almost within reach of a transceiver's ATU, and it might even manage it depending on the R and X values. That will depend on the length of the coax.

It should be obvious that to reduce the loss the transformation network should be placed at the feed point. It will have to switched by relays (one at each port) so that it is bypassed on HF. With fixed C and L an L-network can be very efficient. TLW has the following to say based on average quality components.

To connect all of this to the real world, I measured the impedance of my TH6 on 50 MHz. Of course there are differences between a real 6-element tri-band yagi and the 3-element tri-band model, but they're both trapped and the driven element of the TH6 has a close resemblance to the model. That was my intention when I originally developed the model years ago.

The impedance was measured in the shack with a RigExpert AA-54, which you've probably seen in many other articles on the blog. I could have used a VNA for improved accuracy, however that really isn't needed for this exercise. The transmission line has a few short sections of RG213 and LMR400, so I mentally estimated how that translates as an extension to the LDF5-50A Heliax transmission line I'm using. I only needed the approximate SWR, not the precise impedance at the antenna feed point.

The measured SWR is 5, which is about 8.5 at the feed point. Although that seems significantly less than 30 for the model it really isn't. Very high SWR is acutely sensitive to small details of the load and transmission line. For example, when I substituted RG213 in TLW the result was nonsensical because the load would have to have a negative impedance. The reason is that you could never read an SWR as high as 5 since that requires a transmission line with loss better that of RG213.

Suffice to say that the SWR is high and the mismatch loss can be very high. Few hams in the situation described in this article are likely to be using LDF5 Heliax!

For hams looking for a simple and effective 6 meter antenna, a switched network on top of the tower is probably not what they are looking for. A dipole mounted above the yagi and an inexpensive remote coax switch (or separate feed line) are probably a preferable alternative. 

A 2-element yagi is very small and has significantly better uni-directional gain. Hams of my acquaintance who get on 6 meters with their 20 to 6 meter hex beams seem to be satisfied with the performance. It isn't what I would choose for myself  but few hams have the towers and property that I do.

The northern hemisphere's summer sporadic E season is now finished. For those planning to get active on the band in 2023 this article may motivate you to put up a resonant antenna rather than try to get by loading an existing HF antenna. The improvement will have a remarkable impact on your success.

6 Meter Season: Diminishing Returns

I am reluctant to write this article. Although we are now 2 months past the peak of the summer sporadic E season the band is not quite dead. But I have to accept that we are about done and this is a good time to reflect on the season that was. E season wrap ups have become a regular feature of the blog; for example, here is last year's summary.

The 2022 season was a mixed bag. Propagation started slow on 6 meters, petered out right at the solstice peak, then July delivered a multitude of openings. The magic band likes to keep us guessing.

DXCC

On the DX front my DXCC count changed little. At the end of last year I had 111 worked and now the count is 120. Of the 9 new entities, a maximum of 7 can be attributed to sporadic E. The others were F-layer or TEP deep into South America to work CE and CX. The opening to the Pacific that netted E51WL and 3D2AG likely had a sporadic E component at this end of the path.

Considering that I logged 900 QSOs on 6 meters this season (over 700 of which are DX) that is one new country per 100 QSOs. The reach of sporadic E is limited and the further the path the lower the probability of an opening, especially at higher latitudes. Were there more activity from Africa the DX potential would be greater. Working DX on 6 meters is rarely easy, and if it was it would be less rewarding. I am not complaining, just relating the facts.

Operator duty cycle

One of the questions I am regularly asked about DXing on 6 meters is: when should I listen for which DX? Sporadic E is called sporadic for a reason, so I have to disappoint them. There are times of the day among a multitude of other indicators with an increased probability of DX over particular paths. Unfortunately for us, good and bad surprises are the norm.

There is no substitute for dedication and listening. At the very least, monitor DX spotting networks. During sporadic E season my rig is regularly monitoring 50.313 MHz even when the band is dead, just in case. I leave it on when I am out of the shack or away on other business so that I can review the sometimes long list of decoded FT8 messages.

The point is, you can't be sitting in front of the rig 24×7 for 4 months straight. Surprise openings are surprises (duh!) so you have to accept that you will miss some or many. When I miss openings I am able to learn likely propagation patterns by reviewing what I missed. That's the point of leaving the rig on when I can't be there.

There are times when I fully expect the band to open and I leave anyway. We all have responsibilities that brook no delay or rescheduling. During summer I also have non-ham interests that I attend to. Life is more than ham radio.

Here are many of the DXCC countries I missed working this year because I had to be away or I chose to be away: Z6, EY, ZL7, OA, V4, TR8, TT. There were also the inevitable almost new ones from partial contacts that could not be completed due to the rapid rise and fall of DX paths. One in particular that comes to mind is OD. 

Several others new ones were heard that did not hear me. That list is longer. Few hams have the quiet location that I have and it takes a lot of ERP and luck for be heard by them.

Rather than dwell of the disappointments, I prefer to focus on the future: the anticipation of next year's opportunities and the coming F-layer openings. I relish the challenges ahead.

Notable openings

There is an unfortunate habit for hams (just like regular folks) to brag. The presence of examples in this section is not intended that way, although I have to admit to being pleased with my successes. If this hobby doesn't give us pleasure, well, what's the point? With that in mind let's continue.

I already spoke of the fantastic Pacific opening that netted E51WL and 3D2AG early one evening so I'll simply link to that article. There you will also find a screenshot from a friend who copied ZL7DX. I was not present for that one and I don't know if I'd have copied the signal or made a QSO.

It is not always that way. My antenna system and low noise QTH often make the difference between my success and that of those nearby. I took the adjacent screenshot to prove to several friends that I was hearing Hawaii very well one evening in early June. Despite being within 100 km of me and with only slightly less effective antenna systems, they had no decodes of KH6HI or the other Hawaii stations I copied.

It's impossible to say whether the difference was propagation or our stations. Nevertheless, it is a fact that incremental improvements in transmission lines, power, antenna gain and antenna height are in your best interest. Small differences add up and will improve your success rate.

Last year I copied UN stations during a brief early morning opening. The amp was off and I failed to make a QSO. That isn't unusual for sporadic E.  I was therefore happily surprised when UN3G answered my CQ in early July. As you can see the signal reports are painfully low, but all that matters is that the QSO is good.

Much to my surprise there was more to come. On at least 3 further days in July we had openings to UN. In one case it lasted close to an hour. Now I have 6 contacts with Kazakhstan on 6 meters. Although the latter 5 are superfluous for DXCC, the joy of contacts over such a long path is never uninteresting. I almost don't mind that I missed EY8MM. There is always next year.

Despite the frequency of openings and large ham population, there are countries in Europe I have yet to work. Some have only occasional activity or their station conditions are poor. Two that I added were ER and ZA. The Italian station in Albania was periodically heard by me and my friends but never strong enough or in for long enough to allow for a QSO. 

During one excellent opening he was quite strong on 50.323 MHz and, as you can see, the new one was rapidly logged. It's always fun to convert a purple CQ to green. Signals improved and the friends I notified were also able to add ZA to their 6 meter DXCC total. The buddy system works.

I finally managed to work HL this year, and 4 of them for good measure. The bearing as you travel the short distance from JA6 to HL to BY shifts alarmingly north due to the long path length. That's what makes them so difficult from this part of the world.

The final South Korean station I worked occurred unexpectedly late in the evening (July 7, UTC). It took several tries with a kilowatt to finally be heard. Unexpected DX is always a pleasure. After our QSO he began calling CQ NA, probably similarly surprised by the opening to eastern NA.

Among my misses this year was China. As already mentioned, China is difficult due to the northern bearing of about 345° to 0° for the densely populated eastern half of the country. Compare that to 330° to 335° bearing range for Japan, which is a far easier path. Indeed, I worked dozens of new Japanese stations this year over several openings.

As you can see from the screenshot, I certainly tried to work China! BA4SI appears to be in the Shanghai region, which is about the least northerly path from here. Perhaps like many others they have a QRN problem. I heard them and other Chinese stations on at least 3 evenings in July. None responded to my calls. Other than BA4SI none of them were in for more than 3 consecutive FT8 intervals, which is barely sufficient for an QSO. I'll try again next year.

A notable opening that almost but didn't quite reach me was VK4. That's an extraordinary long path! It is a little north of west for us to those stations located in eastern VK4. That is about as far to the south the great circle path goes from here to anywhere in Australia, and that makes it about the easiest.

Many stations not far to the west and south of us were successful working the several VK4 stations that participated in the opening. I and my friends had not a single decode. Some things were never meant to be. This one may have to wait for an F-layer opening.

Pros and cons of increased activity

When the band is open it's busy, very busy. An increasing number of hams are discovering 6 meters and they are active. This is fantastic but it does add to the QRM and QRN. 

The increase is not only local so there are more DX stations to work and more countries to be worked. Cutting through the QRM to do so is unfortunately necessary. I prefer it this way compared to a quiet band with fewer stations to work. The intercontinental window at 50.323 MHz is less busy yet relatively few stations QSY.

Some of the QRM is due to improperly adjusted transmitters and amplifiers. Although we use the SSB mode on our equipment, digital is not phone. On SSB we "own" the full 2.7 kHz of spectrum we occupy, which is necessary to contain enough of the human voice to enable legibility. It is therefore not an inconvenience to others that we use non-linear techniques such as clipping and compression to increase average power. The distortion due to non-linear processing improves communications when judiciously applied.

Try this on digital modes and bedlam ensues. The 3 kHz window typically employed for FT8 requires that each occupant strictly limits their signals to the approximate 50 Hz audio bandwidth required. To do so requires audio linearity and RF linearity. 

Unfortunately our rigs often make this difficult since the non-linear features used for SSB must be manually disabled when switching to digital. Many hams forget or don't realize its importance. I know and yet I occasionally make mistakes. With a constant probability for each operator to make a "mistake", the probability of QRM due to these mistakes increases in proportion to activity. Then there are the anonymous "policemen" who add to the QRM with directed custom messages to harass the guilty parties. 

Expect problems to continue until we have a new generation of equipment that incorporates improved digital features and abandon use of the SSB mode. Hopefully that will also reduce distortion, audible computer sounds and background noise from live mics. For example, in the FTdx5000 that I use the mic is always live despite using the rear audio jacks to connect the PC. I have to remember to unplug the mic when switching to FT8. It's easy to forget.

Another notable behaviour is the increasing presence of robots. For those not familiar with digital robots, they are typically made from forks of the open source WSJT-X software. Robots are in violations of the open source license. It is not easy to get them taken down and there are numerous applications proliferating in the wild. I won't provide specific examples but the curious will not find them difficult to locate on the internet.

Robots will automatically CQ or call CQ'ers, work stations and log the QSOs. Some do not discriminate, calling everyone they hear, often progressing up and down the FT8 window in a easily identified pattern. Others are more particular about their behaviour and use filters to limit who they call. 

Most robot software users appear to have no evil intent. They may simply enjoy the novelty of the technology. Others like the idea of logging lots of stations while they at work or doing other things. A few do it to demonstrate (mostly to themselves) that digital modes are not "real" amateur radio. I will not work robots that I can recognize as robots. Persistent bad actors are particularly obvious and they have a well-earned poor reputation. 

Most on the band don't care or are even aware that they are working robots. It was inevitable that robot operators would migrate from HF to 6 meters along with everyone else.

Propagation lessons

It's impossible to be passionate about DXing on 6 meters without developing a keen appreciation of the underlying propagation science. Despite the vastly improved understanding of the mechanisms underlying sporadic E, TEP, scattering and other propagation modes, predictability remains elusive. 

We do far better with the weather since measurements that feed computer models are easier and more extensive. There are also strong economic incentives to improve predictions. Radio propagation lacks the economic incentive in the 21st century and there is no good way to install measurement instruments at multiple points in the outer reaches of the atmosphere. Remote observations are a poor substitute. 

Predictability will therefore remain a challenge. Those seeking certainty will continue to be disappointed with the poor predictability of openings on 6 meters.

Despite the challenges, the increased level of 6 meter activity, prevalence of digital modes and the broad use of internet tools are giving us a better understanding of sporadic E propagation. Although prediction is poor, we can do a lot better than in past decades. Here is a short list of what has become apparent to me (and others):

• Weak and brief sporadic E propagation over both short and long paths are more frequent than has been previously believed. Single decodes of distant stations on a "dead" band are fairly common. The proliferation of big stations continuously transmitting CQs makes this possible; beacons are too weak and require effort to individually monitor. I also will periodically rattle off CQs on a dead band, and in combination with PSK Reporter I see flags of my transmissions being decoded in unexpected places more than I would have once believed possible.
• Overnight DX openings during sporadic E season are more common than expected. I have taken to leaving WSJT-X running overnight many times this year, with the yagi pointed north into the perpetual Arctic daylight. The log of decoded messages that I review in the morning contains notable surprises. I have also been surprised by how often I will get a flag in western NA during our mornings, well before their sunrise, while I'm beaming to Europe or west Asia.
• Brief long distance openings to eastern Europe and Asia are common in the hour or two after sunrise. These are easy to miss since I am not an early riser and sunrise in the weeks surrounding the solstice is 5:15 AM.
• Conditions that result in an opening today don't immediately dissipate. There is an increased probability of a similar opening, perhaps weaker or stronger, the next day. I have noticed this on almost every path: east Asia, central Asia, east/west/south Europe, NA west coast, and South America. The same may be true of the Pacific, but with sparse activity it is difficult to know.
  

While scientifically interesting, some of the above phenomena do not translate into QSOs. The openings are too transitory and digital modes too slow to take good advantage. But they are there, and that's good to know. We may develop technological aids to turn those opportunities into results in the future. Being a ham involves progressing the art and not twiddling the VFO knob as we had to do in days of yore.

Looking ahead

We can expect a return of north-south propagation as we approach the fall equinox in late September. That can happen with modest solar activity if other factors are favourable. There are a few more South Americans that I would like an opportunity to work. Beyond that, we'll need a higher solar flux. 

When the solar flux rises above 150 the propagation, as seen from here, will spread east and west across the tropics and to the southern hemisphere. Going by my experience from the 1989/90 solar maximum, openings to South America will expand to include southern Africa and equatorial Africa. It is almost certainly present to the eastern part of the South Pacific, but there is almost no one there. The sparsity of land and hams is at fault.

Eventually, but probably not this year, we'll see east-west propagation within the northern hemisphere. The solar flux would have to hold above 180 for that to happen, and it would have to happen during the fall and spring for best results. Deeper into winter the northerly paths are less likely to open since solar insolation at high latitudes is weak. Winter sporadic E will occur but it is poor for DX at my location.

Despite the title of this article, I am hopeful that 2023 will be a good year for 6 meter DXing. We can count on a higher solar flux, increased activity and the return of sporadic E. More paths will open and more of us will be there to take advantage. With the diminishing returns of sporadic E propagation at my DXCC level, those additional propagation modes are needed to eke out more than a handful of new countries each year. 

Although the 1989/90 solar maximum was exceptionally good, I could not get past 70 countries because so few countries had access to 6 meters. It was frustrating to have great propagation to Europe and only be able to work a handful of countries. The majority had no access to the band. Those barriers are almost entirely down so if the present solar cycle is a good one there will be no shortage of DX to work, including with small stations. We have a lot to look forward to.

For the present my attention has shifted back to HF and preparing my station for the fall and winter contest season. I still have much to do.